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Unit 05/06 - Modern Challenges
Note: If you do 5.1 you don't have to do 5.2!!
5.1.1
Self-Determination: the free choice of a people to choose their own political future.
Colonialism: the economic , political and cultural domination by one country over
another country or group of people.
Indian Independence Act: 1947 Act that divided India and Pakistan
and also gave them independence.
Apartheid: 1948 South African racial policy that divided
South Africans into white and non-white. The policy resulted in racial
segregation, restrictions on marriages, residences, and education.
African National Congress: nationalist group that used
non-violent resistance to attack racial discrimination in South Africa. They
used boycotts, strikes, demonstrations, and openly defied segregation laws by
entering “whites” only areas and facilities.
5.1.3
Suez Crisis
Background to the Suez Crisis: Gamal Nasser emerged as the leader of Egypt following the Arab-Israeli of 1948. His two main goals were to:
1. create an independent Egypt free from colonial rule
2. destroy the newly formed nation of Israel.
Nasser who held no preference for either communism or democracy was willing to accept American or Soviet aid. To achieve his goals Nasser was willing let the superpowers bid for his allegiance.Nasser needed a modern army to destroy Israel and in 1955 he signed an arms deal with Czechoslovakia a Soviet bloc nation.
To develop Egypt economically and end colonial power he needed electricity. In 1956 he signed a deal with the U.S. to help build the Aswan Dam power project. Nasser’s balancing act of getting aid from both sides was about to crumble.
The Suez Crisis 1956: Nasser began to lose Western support due to
America’s concern over Nasser’s non-aligned nationalism and Egypt’s continuing
conflict with Israel which had close ties to the U.S. Contrary to international
and UN agreements Egypt stopped all Israeli ships and all ships bound for Israel
from using the Suez Canal.The U.S. then refused financial aid for the Aswan Dam.
Nasser reacted immediately by seizing control of the Suez Canal and turned to
the Soviets for help in building the Dam.Egypt’s takeover of the Canal was
peaceful; Britain and France the owners were offered market value and full use
of the Canal. Nevertheless this event increased global tensions. Britain and
France devised a scheme to regain control of the Canal. Israel was to attack
Egypt as part of the ongoing Arab-Israeli dispute. Britain and France would land
troops at the canal zone on the pretence to protect international shipping. Once
there they would take control of the canal, Israel would expand its territory
and Nasser would be overthrown. The conspirators miscalculated world
reaction.
Results of the Suez Crisis: The Soviets threatened to launch missiles on Paris and London. The United States was outraged with France and Britain.The U.S. introduced a motion at the UN calling for Israel to withdraw its troops and for all members to refrain from the use of force. France and Britain vetoed this motion as well as a Soviet motion the that the Soviets and Americans jointly intervene.The Security Council finally suggested that the matter go before the General Assembly which could not be vetoed. (Procedural) On Nov. 2 an American resolution called for a cease fire and international action to ensure the passage through the Suez Canal.On Nov.4 Canada’s UN representative, Lester Person, proposed the British & French force in the Canal zone be replaced by a peacekeeping force.The lasting significance of the Suez Crisis was the creation of UN peackeeping forces.
5.1.4
The Decline of Colonialism Post WWII:
The end of WWII signalled the decline and eventual end of the European colonial empires. Nationalism spread throughout colonies and eventually one by one they gained independence. A variety of factors led to the decline of colonialism.
The Atlantic Charter (1941) promoted sovereignty and self government for all nations. This encouraged nationalists in colonies to fight for independence. Colonial
nationalist movements grew in the colonies. Ironically the leaders of these groups were trained in Western ideas at universities such as France, Britain and other Western countries. These people returned home to emerge as the leaders of
nationalist groups that fought for independence.
Many European countries supported independence in colonies because of the high cost of maintaining them. European powers were unable to justify holding these colonies when there economies were struggling following 6 years of war.
Following WWII both the U.S. and Soviet Union wanted to see the breakup of the European empires. The U.S. having waged a war of independence against Britain (1776) supported independence movements . The U.S. also felt if Europe lost its empires they would have greater access to colonial markets. The Soviets opposed European empires feeling that if the empires collapsed their were be greater opportunities for establishing communist countries.
5.1.5
Gandhi
Gandhi Leads India to Independence: For 200 years Britain ruled India and did not want to give up this valuable colony. Gandhi, trained as a lawyer in Britain, returned to India in 1915 to lead India’s struggle to independence. The methods Gandhi used to achieve independence were non-violence and civil disobedience. Gandhi believed that Indian people had the right to freedom and self rule. Because Britain deprived India of its independence, Gandhi felt they should resist or break British law. Gandhi thus encouraged Indian people to refuse to obey morally intolerable laws (Salt Tax). This is civil disobedience.
Some examples of civil disobedience were:
• resign from government jobs
• stop buying British goods
• refuse to pay taxes
• purposely break unfair laws
Gandhi insisted that his followers not respond to the British with violence. If Indians were protesting and police clubbed them. Gandhi insisted that they not only not hit back but not even shield themselves from the attack. This was non-violence. Gandhi believed that the British would be defeated not when they had no strength but when they had no heart to fight against a moral, non-violent people. Gandhi’s methods were eventually successful and India became independent in 1947.
Nasser
Nasser Creates An Independent Egypt: Egyptian nationalism increased the growing criticism of Egypt’s monarchy as corrupt. Egypt’s defeat by Israel in the war of 1948 caused humiliation among Egyptian soldiers. Pledging to restore Arab pride, Nasser and others formed a Free Officers movement aimed at driving out foreign powers. In 1952 army officers forced the Egyptian King Farouk to abdicate. The monarchy was abolished and a new republic, with Nasser as president, was established in 1956. Nasser was celebrated in Egypt for standing up to Europeans, redistributing wealth to improve the lives of citizens and pledging to restore Palestine to Palestinians.
Mandella
Mandella Fights Against Apartheid in South Africa: In 1948 apartheid was introduced to South Africa. This racial policy separated South Africa into classes - a privileged white ruling class and an exploited subservient class. Whites controlled the political, educational and economic institutions for their advantage. Nationalist groups such as the African National Congress (ANC) began using boycotts, strikes, and demonstrations to attack racial discrimination in South Africa. The South African government responded by arresting ANC leaders such as Nelson Mandela. Mandela joined the ANC in 1944 and in the 1950's he organized non-violent resistance against apartheid. Following the Sharpeville massacre in 1960 Mandela and others abandoned non-violent protest in favour of violent acts. As a result Mandela was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1963. While in prison from 1963 - 90 Mandela became an international figure with a worldwide following of supporters. He repeatedly refused offers of freedom in exchange for keeping quiet about apartheid. This elevated him to mythical status among black South Africans. Eventually his fame grew that world leaders and the UN applied political pressure for Mandela’s release. Musicians, artists and writers championed Mandel’s cause. Finally in 1990, the South African government facing civil unrest and world pressure, released Mandela. The government pledged reforms to create an equal and democratic South Africa. In 1994 Nelson Mandela was elected the first black president of South Africa.
Note: If you do 5.1 you don't have to do 5.2!!
Jessica, Start Studying here.
5.2.1
Palestine Liberation Organization: PLO - a political movement uniting Palestinian Arabs in an effort to create an independent state of Palestine; when formed in 1964 it was a terrorist organization dominated by Yasser Arafat's al-Fatah; in 1968 Arafat became chairman; received recognition by the United Nations and by Arab states in 1974 as a government in exile; has played a largely political role since the creation of the Palestine National Authority
Intifadah: an uprising by Palestinian Arabs (in both the Gaza Strip and the West Bank) against Israel in the late 1980s and again in 2000; "the first intifada ended when Israel granted limited autonomy to the Palestine National Authority in 1993"
Islamic fundamentalism: is a term used to describe religious ideologies seen as advocating a return to the "fundamentals" of Islam:
Zionism: Jewish political movement that, in its broadest sense, has supported the
self-determination of the Jewish people in a sovereign Jewish national homeland.
jihad: an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād
translates is a noun meaning "struggle.". Western People believe the word means Holy War.
5.2.2
The partitioning of Palestine created what is now known as the state of Israel, a homeland for the Jews among a multitude of highly-motivated militant Muslim governments. Israel, backed by the United States and the United Kingdom, was militarily far more advanced than its proximate states and as they attacked the newly-created Jewish state, the military response was swift, aggressive, and decisive, ending in 1973 with the Yom Kippur War.
5.2.3
The Palestinians fought aggressively against the establishment of Jewish settlements in the Occupied Territories. This fighting continues into modern day.
5.2.4
The Camp David Accords (1978) are a bilateral agreement between Israel and Egypt for peace.
The Oslo Accords (1993) call for a withdrawal of Israeli forces from parts of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank and the recognition of the PLO as a legitimate representative of the Palestinians while the PLO renounced terrorism and recognized Israel’s right to exist.
The Palestinian National Authority (formed in 1994) was created to administer parts of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank as outlined in the Oslo Accords for five years. It is still attempting to complete its mandate.
The Madrid Talks (1991) attempted to begin a formal peace process between Israel and the Palestinians, plus Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan. The outcome of the conference was hopeful but no effects have been seen in actual agreements between the countries as a result.
The Wye River Memorandum (1998) was meant to facilitate implementation of the agreement on the West Bank and Gaza Strip. After Israel began implementation, the Palestinian forces refused to reciprocate and the agreement was placed on hold.
5.2.5
Middle-eastern countries with significant oil have become increasingly rich in the later part of the twentieth century and the beginning of this century. While most have modernized and westernized as would be expected as western money flowed in and western expertise and equipment extracted the oil, Islamic tradition has prevented real progress in much of this area, especially Saudi Arabia, where fundamentalism runs rampant, and throughout areas where terrorism is supported as a matter of religious pride and as an investment in a future dominated by the Islamic world.
5.2.6
In 1991, the United Nations called on a 34-nation force (led by the United States) to drive back the invading Iraqi army from Kuwait. After a staggeringly long military encounter between small state of Iraq and the superpower United States, Kuwait was liberated. The length of this encounter was partially due to the restrictions put on the United States by the United Nations’ passive stance on peacekeeping and partially due to the lack of communication between commanding officers of forces between different countries.
6.1.1
Arms Proliferation: the spread of dangerous arms/weapons throughout the world. This is seen as dangerous as it is feared dictators/terrorists would be more willing to use such weapons.
Terrorism: a method of aggression that uses violence to create fear in an attempt to gain some goal; usually political.
Human Rights: the freedom granted to all people protecting them from unlawful arrest, torture, or execution.
Ethnic Cleansing: the displacement or murder of one ethnic group by another.
6.1.2
Background to the Suez Crisis: Gamal Nasser emerged as the leader of Egypt following the Arab-Israeli of 1948. His two main goals were to:
• create an independent Egypt free from colonial rule
• destroy the newly formed nation of Israel
Nasser who held no preference for either communism or democracy was
willing to accept American or Soviet aid. To achieve his goals Nasser was
willing let the superpowers bid for his allegiance. Nasser needed a modern army
to destroy Israel and in 1955 he signed an arms deal with Czechoslovakia a
Soviet bloc nation. To develop Egypt economically and end colonial power he
needed electricity. In 1956 he signed a deal with the U.S. to help build the
Aswan Dam power project.Nasser’s balancing act of getting aid from both sides
was about to crumble.
The Suez Crisis 1956: Nasser began to lose Western support due to
America’s concern over Nasser’s non-aligned nationalism and Egypt’s continuing
conflict with Israel which had close ties to the U.S. Contrary to international
and UN agreements Egypt stopped all Israeli ships and all ships bound for Israel
from using the Suez Canal.The U.S. then refused financial aid for the Aswan Dam.
Nasser reacted immediately by seizing control of the Suez Canal and turned to
the Soviets for help in building the Dam. Egypt’s takeover of the Canal was
peaceful; Britain and France the owners were offered market value and full use
of the Canal.Nevertheless this event increased global tensions. Britain and
France devised a scheme to regain control of the Canal. Israel was to attack
Egypt as part of the ongoing Arab- Israeli dispute. Britain and France would
land troops at the canal zone on the pretence to protect international shipping.
Once there they would take control of the canal, Israel would expand its
territory and Nasser would be overthrown. The conspirators miscalculated world reaction.
Results of the Suez Crisis: The Soviets threatened to launch
missiles on Paris and London. The United States was outraged with France and
Britain.The U.S. introduced a motion at the UN calling for Israel to withdraw
its troops and for all members to refrain from the use of force. France and
Britain vetoed this motion as well as a Soviet motion the that the Soviets and
Americans jointly intervene. The Security Council finally suggested that the
matter go before the General Assembly which could not be vetoed. (Procedural) On Nov. 2 an American resolution at the UN called for a cease fire and
international action to ensure passage through the Suez Canal.On Nov.4 Canada’s
UN representative, Lester Person, proposed the British & French force in the
Canal zone be replaced by a peacekeeping force.The lasting significance of the
Suez Crisis was the creation of UN peackeeping forces.
6.1.2-3
UN in Somalia:
Background: The Republic of Somalia was created in 1960, 9 years later there was a military coup. For the next 20 years under the rule of a dictator (General Barre) democracy was eliminated, industries were nationalized, and human rights were abused. In 1988 civil war broke out in the drought stricken country as Somali clans opposed Barre. By 1991 Barre had control of Northern Somalia but warlords competed for political power in the South. Part of Mogadishu, in the South, was divided between Abgall (5000 guerillas) and Aidid (10,000 guerillas).
Famine spread throughout Somalia and 300,000 to 500,000 people died. Thousands fled to Mogadishu but the warlords controlled the food (supplied by UN) only giving it to people who supported them. These warlords also opposed the idea of UN military forces entering the country.Despite the best efforts of groups like UNICEF and Red Cross food destined for famine victims continued to be looted and used by those engaged on the civil war. By June 1992, 6 million faced starvation. In 1992, with Operation Restore Hope, the UN authorized the use of military force to ensure food reached the people of Somalia. In December a U.S. led operation arrived in Somalia which put UN soldiers in direct confrontation with the warring factions. In 1993 18 U.S. soldiers were killed and dragged through the streets of Mogadishu. As a result the UN mission in Somalia changed from humanitarian aid to demobilizing warring factions. Thousands died in clashes including dozens of peacekeepers. The UN was unable to maintain a cease fire, and so the mission ended in failure. UN troops were withdrawn in March 1995.* By 2000 the UN had set up a Transitional National Government to draw a constitution and hold elections.
UN in Bosnia-Herzegovinia:
Background: Josef Broz Tito ruled Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1980. Under Tito the country made up of six republics : Bosnia, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Slovenia and Serbia was prosperous, peaceful and independent. By 1990 the country had broken apart into competing ethnic and political groups. Yugoslavia’s breakup became a reality in June 1991 when Croatia and Slovenia separated from Yugoslavia and declared themselves independent. The Serbian - dominated Yugoslav army attempted to prevent the separations but failed. Fighting raged throughout 1991 resulting in the deaths of thousands. By the end of 1991 it was clear that the Serbia had failed to prevent the disintegration of Yugoslavia. The Serbs were now determined to prevent the separation of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
The population of Bosnia was 44% Muslim, 31% Serbian and 17% Croatian, the remainder being other ethnic groups. The Muslims and Croats voted in favour of independence in 1992. Serbia, unwilling to see the largest group of Serbs outside Serbia become a minority, within a new country, launched a full scale assault on Bosnia in an attempt to eliminate all Muslims and Croats. People were driven out of their homes, and houses were burned down to prevent the return Muslims or Croats. This policy of forcing ethnic groups out of a region became known as ethnic cleansing.The situation in the former Yugoslavia soon attracted world attention and intervention. The UN demanded an end to the violence but was ignored. The UN imposed harsh economic sanctions against Serbia and sent UN peacekeeping forces to Bosnia to protect the airport to protect relief shipments. However these forces did not have the ability to impose peace. Fighting continued throughout 1992 and by 1993 Serbia was expelled from the UN. UN peacekeeping forces were now threatened. Finally the U.S. was able to convince NATO to intervene militarily. In the end the region became a confusing mix of NATO peacemaking and UN peacekeeping– both failed to provide a lasting peace.*The Serbs would be defeated in 1999 by NATO when they invaded Kosovo.
6.1.4
Rwanda :
Rwanda is 85% Hutu and 15% Tutsi. Since the 1600's Tutsi hereditary kings ruled Rwanda. In 1959 the majority Hutu tribe overthrew the Tutsi monarchy and became independent in 1962.In 1973 there was a revolution and the new constitution limited the presidency to Hutus. Approximately 150,000 Tutsi were forced into exile. These exiles formed the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and invaded Rwanda in 1990. A peace agreement was signed in 1993. The UN went in to Rwanda to supervise the implementation of this treaty however events would soon overwhelm the UN. In 1994 the assassination of the Hutu president of Rwanda unleashed widespread chaos and death. Over a 13 week period the Hutu-dominated army killed more than 800 000 Tutsis. It became clear that extremist Hutus intended a genocide of the Tutsi population.
Former Yugoslavia:
Yugoslavia was a country made up of various religious and ethnic groups. The collapse of the Soviet Union triggered the breakup of Yugoslavia into competing ethnic and political groups. In June 1991two regions in Yugoslavia, Croatia and Slovenia declared themselves independent. The Serbian - dominated Yugoslav army attempted to prevent the independence of these regions. Fighting raged throughout 1991 resulting in the deaths of thousands. When the province of Bosnia-Herzegovina planned to become independent the Serbs became determined to prevent their separation.The population of Bosnia was 44% Muslim, 31% Serbian and 17% Croatian, the remainder being other ethnic groups. The Muslims and Croats voted in favour of independence in 1992. Serbia, unwilling to see the largest group of Serbs outside Serbia become a minority, within a new country, launched a full scale assault on Bosnia in an attempt to eliminate all Muslims and Croats. People were driven out of their homes, and houses were burned down to prevent the return Muslims or Croats. This policy of forcing ethnic groups out of a region became known as ethnic cleansing.Violence continued in Yugoslavia in 1998 when the
province of Kosovo protested Sebia’s control of them. Civil war broke out with
Serbian forces killing thousands of Albanians who were the largest ethnic group
in Kosovo. There was international intervention in 1999 when it became clear
that the Serbs were implementing a policy of ethnic cleansing.
India-Pakistan:
Pakistan and India have always disagreed over India’s control of Kashmir. In the 1980's Muslim militants in Kashmir have pushed for separation. India accused Pakistan of supporting the campaign while Pakistan claims the Muslim Kashmiris were simply demanding self-determination.By 1990 the situation deteriorated as hundreds of thousands of Muslims took part in demonstrations. Indian troops fled into the region with the result being rising civilian casualties. As well Indian and Pakistani troops skirmished along the border. The future of Kashmir remains a source of friction between India and Pakistan.
6.1.5
The end of the Cold War brought hope for global relationships that
did not depend on military threats the accompanying quest for weapons of mass
destruction (WMD) did. Throughout the 1990's many treaties were signed
eliminating or reducing WMD. Unfortunately such treaties could not solve the
existence of nuclear weapons technology and the desire of some countries to
develop them. Some nations, Iraq, North Korea and Iran began to shopping to buy
materials and expertise to establish nuclear arsenals. These countries justified
the development of their own nuclear weapons because countries such as the U.S,
Russia and China had theirs. Some people feel the threat of nuclear war has
increased because of the desire of more countries to develop nuclear arsenals.
They may be right. Following the attack on the World Trade Center on Sept. 11,
2001 President Bush said that the countries of Iraq, Iran and North Korea formed
an “axis of evil” that promoted terrorism and possessed weapons of mass
destruction. As result of this thinking the U.S. declared war on Iraq in 2003.
Though the U.S toppled Iraq’s leader, Saddam Hussein, it seems that terrorist
activity in this region of the world has only escalated. Thus making the world a
more dangerous place.
6.1.6
Terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and suicide bombings
in Israel have threatened world peace. Though it can be argued that the
terrorists are freedom fighters to many in their region, there is no doubt that
their actions and the response of the U.S. and Israel have threatened world
peace. To demonstrate the threat of terrorism to world peace we need only focus
on the World Trade Center attack. Following this attack political leaders around
the world supported the U.S. when it declared “war on terrorism”. Once Osama Bin
Laden and his terrorist organization al-Queda were identified, many nations
aided the U.S. attack on Afghanistan when this nation protected al-Queda. Though
this war was quickly won there had been a threat to world peace. The threat to
world peace resulting from these attacks unfortunately has increased. U.S.
President Bush feels that other nations such as Iraq support terrorism. As a
result Bush has ignored the UN and invaded Iraq. Though the U.S. quickly
defeated Iraq’s dictator it seems that terrorism in the region has increased.
Many argue that the war in Iraq has created more terrorists who will commit more
acts of terrorism. Who knows where this will end. Obviously it is clear to say
that terrorism and the responses to it threaten world peace.
6.1.7
The two world wars in the first half of the 20th century left Europe ravaged. The new nuclear arms race and nationalism still divided Europe. European leaders, such as Winston Churchill felt European countries should set aside old differences and strengthen the ties of European countries economically and politically. The idea was that if Europe was integrated economically it would reduce nationalism. Beginning in 1949 European nations began establishing trade agreements to increase European cooperation. Since 1949 different trade agreements and organizations have united Europe into an economic zone now referred to as the European Union. As of April 19, 2004 this union includes 25 European countries united in common economic and humanitarian goals. The most symbolic part of this Union is a new currency The Euro which it is hoped all countries will use in the future. The Euro is symbolic of the new unity of Europe.
5.1.1
Self-Determination: the free choice of a people to choose their own political future.
Colonialism: the economic , political and cultural domination by one country over
another country or group of people.
Indian Independence Act: 1947 Act that divided India and Pakistan
and also gave them independence.
Apartheid: 1948 South African racial policy that divided
South Africans into white and non-white. The policy resulted in racial
segregation, restrictions on marriages, residences, and education.
African National Congress: nationalist group that used
non-violent resistance to attack racial discrimination in South Africa. They
used boycotts, strikes, demonstrations, and openly defied segregation laws by
entering “whites” only areas and facilities.
5.1.3
Suez Crisis
Background to the Suez Crisis: Gamal Nasser emerged as the leader of Egypt following the Arab-Israeli of 1948. His two main goals were to:
1. create an independent Egypt free from colonial rule
2. destroy the newly formed nation of Israel.
Nasser who held no preference for either communism or democracy was willing to accept American or Soviet aid. To achieve his goals Nasser was willing let the superpowers bid for his allegiance.Nasser needed a modern army to destroy Israel and in 1955 he signed an arms deal with Czechoslovakia a Soviet bloc nation.
To develop Egypt economically and end colonial power he needed electricity. In 1956 he signed a deal with the U.S. to help build the Aswan Dam power project. Nasser’s balancing act of getting aid from both sides was about to crumble.
The Suez Crisis 1956: Nasser began to lose Western support due to
America’s concern over Nasser’s non-aligned nationalism and Egypt’s continuing
conflict with Israel which had close ties to the U.S. Contrary to international
and UN agreements Egypt stopped all Israeli ships and all ships bound for Israel
from using the Suez Canal.The U.S. then refused financial aid for the Aswan Dam.
Nasser reacted immediately by seizing control of the Suez Canal and turned to
the Soviets for help in building the Dam.Egypt’s takeover of the Canal was
peaceful; Britain and France the owners were offered market value and full use
of the Canal. Nevertheless this event increased global tensions. Britain and
France devised a scheme to regain control of the Canal. Israel was to attack
Egypt as part of the ongoing Arab-Israeli dispute. Britain and France would land
troops at the canal zone on the pretence to protect international shipping. Once
there they would take control of the canal, Israel would expand its territory
and Nasser would be overthrown. The conspirators miscalculated world
reaction.
Results of the Suez Crisis: The Soviets threatened to launch missiles on Paris and London. The United States was outraged with France and Britain.The U.S. introduced a motion at the UN calling for Israel to withdraw its troops and for all members to refrain from the use of force. France and Britain vetoed this motion as well as a Soviet motion the that the Soviets and Americans jointly intervene.The Security Council finally suggested that the matter go before the General Assembly which could not be vetoed. (Procedural) On Nov. 2 an American resolution called for a cease fire and international action to ensure the passage through the Suez Canal.On Nov.4 Canada’s UN representative, Lester Person, proposed the British & French force in the Canal zone be replaced by a peacekeeping force.The lasting significance of the Suez Crisis was the creation of UN peackeeping forces.
5.1.4
The Decline of Colonialism Post WWII:
The end of WWII signalled the decline and eventual end of the European colonial empires. Nationalism spread throughout colonies and eventually one by one they gained independence. A variety of factors led to the decline of colonialism.
The Atlantic Charter (1941) promoted sovereignty and self government for all nations. This encouraged nationalists in colonies to fight for independence. Colonial
nationalist movements grew in the colonies. Ironically the leaders of these groups were trained in Western ideas at universities such as France, Britain and other Western countries. These people returned home to emerge as the leaders of
nationalist groups that fought for independence.
Many European countries supported independence in colonies because of the high cost of maintaining them. European powers were unable to justify holding these colonies when there economies were struggling following 6 years of war.
Following WWII both the U.S. and Soviet Union wanted to see the breakup of the European empires. The U.S. having waged a war of independence against Britain (1776) supported independence movements . The U.S. also felt if Europe lost its empires they would have greater access to colonial markets. The Soviets opposed European empires feeling that if the empires collapsed their were be greater opportunities for establishing communist countries.
5.1.5
Gandhi
Gandhi Leads India to Independence: For 200 years Britain ruled India and did not want to give up this valuable colony. Gandhi, trained as a lawyer in Britain, returned to India in 1915 to lead India’s struggle to independence. The methods Gandhi used to achieve independence were non-violence and civil disobedience. Gandhi believed that Indian people had the right to freedom and self rule. Because Britain deprived India of its independence, Gandhi felt they should resist or break British law. Gandhi thus encouraged Indian people to refuse to obey morally intolerable laws (Salt Tax). This is civil disobedience.
Some examples of civil disobedience were:
• resign from government jobs
• stop buying British goods
• refuse to pay taxes
• purposely break unfair laws
Gandhi insisted that his followers not respond to the British with violence. If Indians were protesting and police clubbed them. Gandhi insisted that they not only not hit back but not even shield themselves from the attack. This was non-violence. Gandhi believed that the British would be defeated not when they had no strength but when they had no heart to fight against a moral, non-violent people. Gandhi’s methods were eventually successful and India became independent in 1947.
Nasser
Nasser Creates An Independent Egypt: Egyptian nationalism increased the growing criticism of Egypt’s monarchy as corrupt. Egypt’s defeat by Israel in the war of 1948 caused humiliation among Egyptian soldiers. Pledging to restore Arab pride, Nasser and others formed a Free Officers movement aimed at driving out foreign powers. In 1952 army officers forced the Egyptian King Farouk to abdicate. The monarchy was abolished and a new republic, with Nasser as president, was established in 1956. Nasser was celebrated in Egypt for standing up to Europeans, redistributing wealth to improve the lives of citizens and pledging to restore Palestine to Palestinians.
Mandella
Mandella Fights Against Apartheid in South Africa: In 1948 apartheid was introduced to South Africa. This racial policy separated South Africa into classes - a privileged white ruling class and an exploited subservient class. Whites controlled the political, educational and economic institutions for their advantage. Nationalist groups such as the African National Congress (ANC) began using boycotts, strikes, and demonstrations to attack racial discrimination in South Africa. The South African government responded by arresting ANC leaders such as Nelson Mandela. Mandela joined the ANC in 1944 and in the 1950's he organized non-violent resistance against apartheid. Following the Sharpeville massacre in 1960 Mandela and others abandoned non-violent protest in favour of violent acts. As a result Mandela was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1963. While in prison from 1963 - 90 Mandela became an international figure with a worldwide following of supporters. He repeatedly refused offers of freedom in exchange for keeping quiet about apartheid. This elevated him to mythical status among black South Africans. Eventually his fame grew that world leaders and the UN applied political pressure for Mandela’s release. Musicians, artists and writers championed Mandel’s cause. Finally in 1990, the South African government facing civil unrest and world pressure, released Mandela. The government pledged reforms to create an equal and democratic South Africa. In 1994 Nelson Mandela was elected the first black president of South Africa.
Note: If you do 5.1 you don't have to do 5.2!!
Jessica, Start Studying here.
5.2.1
Palestine Liberation Organization: PLO - a political movement uniting Palestinian Arabs in an effort to create an independent state of Palestine; when formed in 1964 it was a terrorist organization dominated by Yasser Arafat's al-Fatah; in 1968 Arafat became chairman; received recognition by the United Nations and by Arab states in 1974 as a government in exile; has played a largely political role since the creation of the Palestine National Authority
Intifadah: an uprising by Palestinian Arabs (in both the Gaza Strip and the West Bank) against Israel in the late 1980s and again in 2000; "the first intifada ended when Israel granted limited autonomy to the Palestine National Authority in 1993"
Islamic fundamentalism: is a term used to describe religious ideologies seen as advocating a return to the "fundamentals" of Islam:
Zionism: Jewish political movement that, in its broadest sense, has supported the
self-determination of the Jewish people in a sovereign Jewish national homeland.
jihad: an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād
translates is a noun meaning "struggle.". Western People believe the word means Holy War.
5.2.2
The partitioning of Palestine created what is now known as the state of Israel, a homeland for the Jews among a multitude of highly-motivated militant Muslim governments. Israel, backed by the United States and the United Kingdom, was militarily far more advanced than its proximate states and as they attacked the newly-created Jewish state, the military response was swift, aggressive, and decisive, ending in 1973 with the Yom Kippur War.
5.2.3
The Palestinians fought aggressively against the establishment of Jewish settlements in the Occupied Territories. This fighting continues into modern day.
5.2.4
The Camp David Accords (1978) are a bilateral agreement between Israel and Egypt for peace.
The Oslo Accords (1993) call for a withdrawal of Israeli forces from parts of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank and the recognition of the PLO as a legitimate representative of the Palestinians while the PLO renounced terrorism and recognized Israel’s right to exist.
The Palestinian National Authority (formed in 1994) was created to administer parts of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank as outlined in the Oslo Accords for five years. It is still attempting to complete its mandate.
The Madrid Talks (1991) attempted to begin a formal peace process between Israel and the Palestinians, plus Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan. The outcome of the conference was hopeful but no effects have been seen in actual agreements between the countries as a result.
The Wye River Memorandum (1998) was meant to facilitate implementation of the agreement on the West Bank and Gaza Strip. After Israel began implementation, the Palestinian forces refused to reciprocate and the agreement was placed on hold.
5.2.5
Middle-eastern countries with significant oil have become increasingly rich in the later part of the twentieth century and the beginning of this century. While most have modernized and westernized as would be expected as western money flowed in and western expertise and equipment extracted the oil, Islamic tradition has prevented real progress in much of this area, especially Saudi Arabia, where fundamentalism runs rampant, and throughout areas where terrorism is supported as a matter of religious pride and as an investment in a future dominated by the Islamic world.
5.2.6
In 1991, the United Nations called on a 34-nation force (led by the United States) to drive back the invading Iraqi army from Kuwait. After a staggeringly long military encounter between small state of Iraq and the superpower United States, Kuwait was liberated. The length of this encounter was partially due to the restrictions put on the United States by the United Nations’ passive stance on peacekeeping and partially due to the lack of communication between commanding officers of forces between different countries.
6.1.1
Arms Proliferation: the spread of dangerous arms/weapons throughout the world. This is seen as dangerous as it is feared dictators/terrorists would be more willing to use such weapons.
Terrorism: a method of aggression that uses violence to create fear in an attempt to gain some goal; usually political.
Human Rights: the freedom granted to all people protecting them from unlawful arrest, torture, or execution.
Ethnic Cleansing: the displacement or murder of one ethnic group by another.
6.1.2
Background to the Suez Crisis: Gamal Nasser emerged as the leader of Egypt following the Arab-Israeli of 1948. His two main goals were to:
• create an independent Egypt free from colonial rule
• destroy the newly formed nation of Israel
Nasser who held no preference for either communism or democracy was
willing to accept American or Soviet aid. To achieve his goals Nasser was
willing let the superpowers bid for his allegiance. Nasser needed a modern army
to destroy Israel and in 1955 he signed an arms deal with Czechoslovakia a
Soviet bloc nation. To develop Egypt economically and end colonial power he
needed electricity. In 1956 he signed a deal with the U.S. to help build the
Aswan Dam power project.Nasser’s balancing act of getting aid from both sides
was about to crumble.
The Suez Crisis 1956: Nasser began to lose Western support due to
America’s concern over Nasser’s non-aligned nationalism and Egypt’s continuing
conflict with Israel which had close ties to the U.S. Contrary to international
and UN agreements Egypt stopped all Israeli ships and all ships bound for Israel
from using the Suez Canal.The U.S. then refused financial aid for the Aswan Dam.
Nasser reacted immediately by seizing control of the Suez Canal and turned to
the Soviets for help in building the Dam. Egypt’s takeover of the Canal was
peaceful; Britain and France the owners were offered market value and full use
of the Canal.Nevertheless this event increased global tensions. Britain and
France devised a scheme to regain control of the Canal. Israel was to attack
Egypt as part of the ongoing Arab- Israeli dispute. Britain and France would
land troops at the canal zone on the pretence to protect international shipping.
Once there they would take control of the canal, Israel would expand its
territory and Nasser would be overthrown. The conspirators miscalculated world reaction.
Results of the Suez Crisis: The Soviets threatened to launch
missiles on Paris and London. The United States was outraged with France and
Britain.The U.S. introduced a motion at the UN calling for Israel to withdraw
its troops and for all members to refrain from the use of force. France and
Britain vetoed this motion as well as a Soviet motion the that the Soviets and
Americans jointly intervene. The Security Council finally suggested that the
matter go before the General Assembly which could not be vetoed. (Procedural) On Nov. 2 an American resolution at the UN called for a cease fire and
international action to ensure passage through the Suez Canal.On Nov.4 Canada’s
UN representative, Lester Person, proposed the British & French force in the
Canal zone be replaced by a peacekeeping force.The lasting significance of the
Suez Crisis was the creation of UN peackeeping forces.
6.1.2-3
UN in Somalia:
Background: The Republic of Somalia was created in 1960, 9 years later there was a military coup. For the next 20 years under the rule of a dictator (General Barre) democracy was eliminated, industries were nationalized, and human rights were abused. In 1988 civil war broke out in the drought stricken country as Somali clans opposed Barre. By 1991 Barre had control of Northern Somalia but warlords competed for political power in the South. Part of Mogadishu, in the South, was divided between Abgall (5000 guerillas) and Aidid (10,000 guerillas).
Famine spread throughout Somalia and 300,000 to 500,000 people died. Thousands fled to Mogadishu but the warlords controlled the food (supplied by UN) only giving it to people who supported them. These warlords also opposed the idea of UN military forces entering the country.Despite the best efforts of groups like UNICEF and Red Cross food destined for famine victims continued to be looted and used by those engaged on the civil war. By June 1992, 6 million faced starvation. In 1992, with Operation Restore Hope, the UN authorized the use of military force to ensure food reached the people of Somalia. In December a U.S. led operation arrived in Somalia which put UN soldiers in direct confrontation with the warring factions. In 1993 18 U.S. soldiers were killed and dragged through the streets of Mogadishu. As a result the UN mission in Somalia changed from humanitarian aid to demobilizing warring factions. Thousands died in clashes including dozens of peacekeepers. The UN was unable to maintain a cease fire, and so the mission ended in failure. UN troops were withdrawn in March 1995.* By 2000 the UN had set up a Transitional National Government to draw a constitution and hold elections.
UN in Bosnia-Herzegovinia:
Background: Josef Broz Tito ruled Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1980. Under Tito the country made up of six republics : Bosnia, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Slovenia and Serbia was prosperous, peaceful and independent. By 1990 the country had broken apart into competing ethnic and political groups. Yugoslavia’s breakup became a reality in June 1991 when Croatia and Slovenia separated from Yugoslavia and declared themselves independent. The Serbian - dominated Yugoslav army attempted to prevent the separations but failed. Fighting raged throughout 1991 resulting in the deaths of thousands. By the end of 1991 it was clear that the Serbia had failed to prevent the disintegration of Yugoslavia. The Serbs were now determined to prevent the separation of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
The population of Bosnia was 44% Muslim, 31% Serbian and 17% Croatian, the remainder being other ethnic groups. The Muslims and Croats voted in favour of independence in 1992. Serbia, unwilling to see the largest group of Serbs outside Serbia become a minority, within a new country, launched a full scale assault on Bosnia in an attempt to eliminate all Muslims and Croats. People were driven out of their homes, and houses were burned down to prevent the return Muslims or Croats. This policy of forcing ethnic groups out of a region became known as ethnic cleansing.The situation in the former Yugoslavia soon attracted world attention and intervention. The UN demanded an end to the violence but was ignored. The UN imposed harsh economic sanctions against Serbia and sent UN peacekeeping forces to Bosnia to protect the airport to protect relief shipments. However these forces did not have the ability to impose peace. Fighting continued throughout 1992 and by 1993 Serbia was expelled from the UN. UN peacekeeping forces were now threatened. Finally the U.S. was able to convince NATO to intervene militarily. In the end the region became a confusing mix of NATO peacemaking and UN peacekeeping– both failed to provide a lasting peace.*The Serbs would be defeated in 1999 by NATO when they invaded Kosovo.
6.1.4
Rwanda :
Rwanda is 85% Hutu and 15% Tutsi. Since the 1600's Tutsi hereditary kings ruled Rwanda. In 1959 the majority Hutu tribe overthrew the Tutsi monarchy and became independent in 1962.In 1973 there was a revolution and the new constitution limited the presidency to Hutus. Approximately 150,000 Tutsi were forced into exile. These exiles formed the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and invaded Rwanda in 1990. A peace agreement was signed in 1993. The UN went in to Rwanda to supervise the implementation of this treaty however events would soon overwhelm the UN. In 1994 the assassination of the Hutu president of Rwanda unleashed widespread chaos and death. Over a 13 week period the Hutu-dominated army killed more than 800 000 Tutsis. It became clear that extremist Hutus intended a genocide of the Tutsi population.
Former Yugoslavia:
Yugoslavia was a country made up of various religious and ethnic groups. The collapse of the Soviet Union triggered the breakup of Yugoslavia into competing ethnic and political groups. In June 1991two regions in Yugoslavia, Croatia and Slovenia declared themselves independent. The Serbian - dominated Yugoslav army attempted to prevent the independence of these regions. Fighting raged throughout 1991 resulting in the deaths of thousands. When the province of Bosnia-Herzegovina planned to become independent the Serbs became determined to prevent their separation.The population of Bosnia was 44% Muslim, 31% Serbian and 17% Croatian, the remainder being other ethnic groups. The Muslims and Croats voted in favour of independence in 1992. Serbia, unwilling to see the largest group of Serbs outside Serbia become a minority, within a new country, launched a full scale assault on Bosnia in an attempt to eliminate all Muslims and Croats. People were driven out of their homes, and houses were burned down to prevent the return Muslims or Croats. This policy of forcing ethnic groups out of a region became known as ethnic cleansing.Violence continued in Yugoslavia in 1998 when the
province of Kosovo protested Sebia’s control of them. Civil war broke out with
Serbian forces killing thousands of Albanians who were the largest ethnic group
in Kosovo. There was international intervention in 1999 when it became clear
that the Serbs were implementing a policy of ethnic cleansing.
India-Pakistan:
Pakistan and India have always disagreed over India’s control of Kashmir. In the 1980's Muslim militants in Kashmir have pushed for separation. India accused Pakistan of supporting the campaign while Pakistan claims the Muslim Kashmiris were simply demanding self-determination.By 1990 the situation deteriorated as hundreds of thousands of Muslims took part in demonstrations. Indian troops fled into the region with the result being rising civilian casualties. As well Indian and Pakistani troops skirmished along the border. The future of Kashmir remains a source of friction between India and Pakistan.
6.1.5
The end of the Cold War brought hope for global relationships that
did not depend on military threats the accompanying quest for weapons of mass
destruction (WMD) did. Throughout the 1990's many treaties were signed
eliminating or reducing WMD. Unfortunately such treaties could not solve the
existence of nuclear weapons technology and the desire of some countries to
develop them. Some nations, Iraq, North Korea and Iran began to shopping to buy
materials and expertise to establish nuclear arsenals. These countries justified
the development of their own nuclear weapons because countries such as the U.S,
Russia and China had theirs. Some people feel the threat of nuclear war has
increased because of the desire of more countries to develop nuclear arsenals.
They may be right. Following the attack on the World Trade Center on Sept. 11,
2001 President Bush said that the countries of Iraq, Iran and North Korea formed
an “axis of evil” that promoted terrorism and possessed weapons of mass
destruction. As result of this thinking the U.S. declared war on Iraq in 2003.
Though the U.S toppled Iraq’s leader, Saddam Hussein, it seems that terrorist
activity in this region of the world has only escalated. Thus making the world a
more dangerous place.
6.1.6
Terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and suicide bombings
in Israel have threatened world peace. Though it can be argued that the
terrorists are freedom fighters to many in their region, there is no doubt that
their actions and the response of the U.S. and Israel have threatened world
peace. To demonstrate the threat of terrorism to world peace we need only focus
on the World Trade Center attack. Following this attack political leaders around
the world supported the U.S. when it declared “war on terrorism”. Once Osama Bin
Laden and his terrorist organization al-Queda were identified, many nations
aided the U.S. attack on Afghanistan when this nation protected al-Queda. Though
this war was quickly won there had been a threat to world peace. The threat to
world peace resulting from these attacks unfortunately has increased. U.S.
President Bush feels that other nations such as Iraq support terrorism. As a
result Bush has ignored the UN and invaded Iraq. Though the U.S. quickly
defeated Iraq’s dictator it seems that terrorism in the region has increased.
Many argue that the war in Iraq has created more terrorists who will commit more
acts of terrorism. Who knows where this will end. Obviously it is clear to say
that terrorism and the responses to it threaten world peace.
6.1.7
The two world wars in the first half of the 20th century left Europe ravaged. The new nuclear arms race and nationalism still divided Europe. European leaders, such as Winston Churchill felt European countries should set aside old differences and strengthen the ties of European countries economically and politically. The idea was that if Europe was integrated economically it would reduce nationalism. Beginning in 1949 European nations began establishing trade agreements to increase European cooperation. Since 1949 different trade agreements and organizations have united Europe into an economic zone now referred to as the European Union. As of April 19, 2004 this union includes 25 European countries united in common economic and humanitarian goals. The most symbolic part of this Union is a new currency The Euro which it is hoped all countries will use in the future. The Euro is symbolic of the new unity of Europe.